As the name implies, Direct-to-Cell (D2C) provides internet and messaging by connecting smartphones directly to a satellite. Unlike Starlink, D2C doesn’t require ground terminals, “dishes,” or routers to function.

Capabilities found in many smartphones manufactured from 2020 onwards — such as those powering Apple’s Emergency SOS via Satellite — provide the technical foundation for the connectivity.

proven useful in humanitarian disasters, they typically rely on cooperation with local cellular carriers. This, Alimardani explains, would not be a “viable solution in Iran” as state-controlled ISPs would block circumvention methods.

Now, however, a second generation of D2C is emerging that could overcome these limitations.